Objective

Small for gestational age (SGA) preterm infants (PT) are at greatest risk for growth failure. Our objective was to assess the impact of an exclusive human milk diet (HUM) on growth velocities and neonatal morbidities from birth to discharge in a SGA population.

Study design

Multicenter, retrospective cohort study, subgroup analysis of SGA PT comparing a cow’s milk diet (CMD) with HUM diet.

Results

At birth 420 PT were classified as SGA (197 CMD group, 223 HUM group). Demographics and anthropometric measurements were similar. HUM group PT showed improvement in length Z score at discharge (p = 0.024) and reduction in necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) (p = 0.004).

Conclusion

SGA PT fed a HUM diet had significantly decreased incidence of NEC, surgical NEC, and late-onset sepsis. Due to concerns about growth in a HUM diet, it is reassuring SGA infants fed the HUM diet had similar growth to CMD diet with trends toward improvement

Objective

An increasingly common practice is to feed preterm infants a base diet comprising only human milk (HM), usually fortified with a cow's milk (CM)-derived fortifier (CMDF). We evaluated the safety of CMDF in a diet of 100% mother's own milk (MOM) against a HM-derived fortifier (HMDF). To date, this has received little research attention.

Study Design

We reanalyzed a 12-center randomized trial, originally comparing exclusive HM feeding, including MOM, donor milk (DM), and HMDF, versus a CM exposed group fed MOM, preterm formula (PTF), and CMDF1. However, for the current study, we performed a subgroup analysis (n = 114) selecting only infants receiving 100% MOM base diet plus fortification, and fed no DM or PTF. This allowed for an isolated comparison of fortifier type: CMDF versus HMDF to evaluate the primary outcomes: necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and a severe morbidity index of NEC surgery or death; and several secondary outcomes.

Results

CMDF and HMDF groups had similar baseline characteristics. CMDF was associated with higher risk of NEC; relative risk (RR) 4.2 (p = 0.038), NEC surgery or death (RR 5.1, p = 0.014); and reduced head circumference gain (p = 0.04).

Conclusions

In neonates fed, as currently recommended with a MOM-based diet, the safety of CMDF when compared to HMDF has been little researched. We conclude that available evidence points to an increase in adverse outcomes with CMDF, including NEC and severe morbidity comprising NEC surgery or death.

Objective

Substantial losses of nutrients may occur during tube (gavage) feeding of fortified human milk. Our objective was to compare the losses of key macronutrients and minerals based on method of fortification and gavage feeding method.

Methods

We used clinically available gavage feeding systems and measured pre- and post-feeding (end-point) nutrient content of calcium (Ca), phosphorus (Phos), protein, and fat. Comparisons were made between continuous, gravity bolus, and 30-minute infusion pump feeding systems, as well as human milk fortified with donor human milk-based and bovine milk-based human milk fortifier using an in vitro model.

Results

Feeding method was significantly associated with fat and Ca losses, with increased losses in continuous feeds. Fat losses in continuous feeds were substantial, with 40 ± 3 % of initial fat lost during the feeding process. After correction for feeding method, human milk fortified with donor milk-based fortifier was associated with significantly less loss of Ca (8 ± 4% vs. 28 ± 4%, p< 0.001), Phos (3 ± 4% vs. 24 ± 4%, p < 0.001), and fat (17 ± 2% vs. 25 ± 2%, p = 0.001) than human milk fortified with a bovine milk-based fortifier (Mean ± SEM).

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is common in preterm infants, especially infants less than 32 weeks gestation. Mortality from NEC is 7% and occurs in 1 out of 1000 preterm infants. Studies have shown the efficacy of an exclusive milk from mother diet in decreasing rates of NEC and associated mortality.

Purpose: 

To evaluate the effectiveness of an existing exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) protocol on the incidence of NEC in extremely premature infants. EHMD, for the purposes of this project is defined as breast milk of mother, with or without human milk-based fortifier.

Methods: 

A single-center retrospective quasi-experimental study. The sample included 201 infants born less than 32 weeks gestation, weighing less than 1250 grams, small for gestational age (SGA) and with low Apgar scores. Outcomes measured included incidences of NEC, mortality, and co-morbidities in infants pre- and postinitiation of an EHMD protocol.

Results: 

Just 4.8% of the EHMD group had a NEC diagnosis compared to 10.5% of the bovine-based (BOV) group. There was a 1% mortality rate of the EHMD group as compared to 6% in the BOV group. The EHMD group had a statistically significant greater weight gain during hospitalization as compared to infants fed BOV (P = < .05).

Human milk provides bioactive compounds such as milk fat globules (MFGs), which promote brain development, modulate the immune system, and hold antimicrobial properties. To ensure microbiological safety, donor milk banks apply heat treatments. This study compares the effects of heat treatments and homogenization on MFG's physicochemical properties, bioactivity, and bioavailability. Vat pasteurization (Vat-PT), retort (RTR), and ultra-high temperature (UHT) were performed with or without homogenization. UHT, RTR, and homogenization increased the colloidal dispersion of globules, as indicated by increased zeta potential. The RTR treatment completely inactivated xanthine oxidase activity (a marker of MFG bioactivity), whereas UHT reduced its activity by 93%. Interestingly, Vat-PT resulted in less damage, with 28% activity retention. Sialic acid, an important compound for brain health, was unaffected by processing. Importantly, homogenization increased the in vitro lipolysis of MFG, suggesting that this treatment could increase the digestibility of MFG. In terms of color, homogenization led to higher L* values, indicating increased whiteness due to finer dispersion of the fat and casein micelles (and thus greater light scattering), whereas UHT and RTR increased b* values associated with Maillard reactions. This study highlights the nuanced effects of processing conditions on MFG properties, emphasizing the retention of native characteristics in Vat-PT-treated human milk.

Conclusion: This study elucidates the intricate influence of processing conditions on the properties of MFG. The Vat-PT method notably preserves most of the native characteristics observed in unprocessed human milk MFG. Regarding the lipolysis characteristics, homogenization increased the in vitro lipolysis of MFG, suggesting that this treatment could increase the digestibility of MFG. The findings from the present study provide an increased understanding of processing techniques’ effects on milk fat globules and milk fat globule membranes, which could be translated into clinical human milk research for alternative human milk processing techniques and their impact on infant health.

An exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) and standardized feeding protocols are two critical methods for safely feeding very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. Our institution initiated a standardized feeding protocol for all VLBW infants in 2018. In this protocol, a human milk fat modular was used only reactively when an infant had poor weight gain, fluid restriction, or hypoglycemia. As part of our NICU quality improvement program, internal utilization review data revealed a potential opportunity to improve growth and reduce costs. While maintaining the EHMD, a simple feeding guideline process change could provide cost savings without sacrificing caloric density or growth. We examined this process change in pre-post cohorts of VLBW infants.

Methods: Our revised feeding protocol, established in October 2021, called for a human milk fat modular (Prolact CR) to be added to all infant feeding when parenteral nutrition (PN) and lipids were discontinued. The human milk fat modular concentration is 4 mL per 100 mL feed, providing approximately an additional 2 kcal/oz. We tracked data to compare (1) the use of the human milk fat modular, (2) the use of the human milk +8 fortifier, (3) overall growth before and after feeding protocol changes, and (4) cost differences between protocols. Results: Thirty-six VLBW infants were followed prospectively upon the introduction of the revised feeding protocol. In the revised era, the need for human milk +8 fortifier decreased from 43% to 14%. The decrease in the cost of a more costly fortifier provided a cost savings of USD 2967.78 on average per infant. Overall growth improved from birth to discharge, with severe malnutrition declining from 3.3% to 2.7% and moderate malnutrition declining from 37% to 8%.

Conclusions: With the proactive use of a human milk fat modular in a standardized feeding protocol, our VLBW infants showed improved growth, lower malnutrition rates, and decreased use of higher caloric fortifiers.

Abstract

This meta-analysis assessed short-term outcomes after using human milk-derived fortifiers (HMFs) compared with bovine milk fortifiers (BMFs) in preterm infants fed an exclusive human milk (HM) diet, either mother's own milk (MOM) or donor human milk (DHM). We searched PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar, CENTRAL and CINHAL between January 2015 and August 2023 for studies reporting outcomes in infants with ≤28 weeks gestation and/or birthweight ≤ 1500 g on an exclusive human milk diet fortified with HMF versus BMF.

The primary outcomes were death and NEC (stage ≥ 2). Four studies with a total of 681 infants were included. Mortality was significantly lower in infants fed with an HM-HMFs diet (four studies, 681 infants; RR = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.26-0.94; p = 0.03; I2 = 0%), NEC was similar between the two groups (four studies, 681 infants; RR = 0.48, 95% CI = 0.20-1.17; p = 0.11; I2= 39%). BPD was higher in the HM-BMFs group (four studies, 663 infants; RR = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.69-1.000; p = 0.05, I2 = 0%), although not statistically significant. No differences were found for sepsis (RR = 0.97, 95% CI = 0.66-1.42; p = 0.96; I2 = 26%) or combined ROP (four studies, 671 infants; RR = 0.64, 95% CI = 0.53-1.07; p = 0.28; I2 = 69%).

An HM-HMFs diet could possibly be associated with decreased mortality with no association with NEC, BPD, sepsis, or ROP. This meta-analysis was limited by the small number of studies included. However, the results should not be refuted for this reason as they provide an impetus for subsequent clinical trials to assess the observed associations.

Conclusion

Our data associates bovine milk-derived fortifiers with a possibly increased risk of death, which makes a reversal possibly necessary. However, the introduction of bovine milk fortifiers cannot yet be judged due to the lack of sufficiently powered clinical trials and the lack of relevant information about the long-term outcomes in terms of neurodevelopment. Although BPD itself is a disease for life and is associated with poorer neurodevelopmental outcomes, we need neurodevelopmental follow-up data from all survivors to definitely address the question of if the use of an exclusive human milk diet from MOM and/or pooled DM is warranted due to the unique nutritional and immunological benefits from human breast milk which can reduce the relevant outcomes of an extremely low gestational period. The results should not be refuted for formal reasons but should be taken as the need to further define the effects of a human milk diet (MOM and/or pooled DM) supplemented with human milk fortifiers.

Background: Implementation of exclusive human milk (EHM) feeding defined as mother's own milk or donor human milk fortified with human milk-derived fortifiers can place an economic burden on institutions.

Methods: Retrospective study of very low birth weight (VLBW) infants before and after the implementation of EHM feedings. Neonatal demographics and clinical outcomes including necrotizing enterocolitis, severe retinopathy of prematurity, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, late-onset sepsis, days on parenteral nutrition (PN), and length-of-stay were collected. The net cost to the institution was estimated using published data.

Results: Sixty-four infants in the pre-EHM period and 57 infants in the post-EHM period were enrolled. Net product acquisition cost in 2020 and 2021 was $884,823. The EHM feeding guideline led to a reduction in the mean length of stay and mean days of PN use by 6.3 and 6.8 days per infant, respectively. This led to a cost saving of $1,813,444 ($31,815 per infant). No significant difference in incidence of short-term morbidities was observed. Combining the cost avoidance from clinical outcomes, the estimated financial impact over 2 years excluding insurance reimbursement was an estimated $ 913,840 ($16,032 per infant).

Conclusion: Implementation of EHM-based feeding in VLBW infants is a cost-effective option for neonatal intensive care units that can result in reduced length of stay and days on PN without adversely impacting short-term morbidities.

Objectives: Enteral nutrition with unfortified human milk during the first 2 postnatal weeks often leads to cumulative protein and energy deficits among preterm infants. Fortified human milk administered soon after birth could increase fat-free mass (FFM) and improve growth in these infants.

Methods: This was a masked, randomized trial. Starting on feeding day 2, extremely preterm infants 28 weeks or younger fed maternal or donor milk were randomized to receive either a diet fortified with a human-based product (intervention group) or a standard, unfortified diet (control group). This practice continued until the feeding day when a standard bovine-based fortifier was ordered. Caregivers were masked. The primary outcome was FFM-for-age z score at 36 weeks of postmenstrual age (PMA).

Results: A total of 150 infants were randomized between 2020 and 2022. The mean birth weight was 795±250 g, and the median gestational age was 26 weeks. Eleven infants died during the observation period. The primary outcome was assessed in 105 infants (70%). FFM-for-age z scores did not differ between groups. Length gain velocities from birth to 36 weeks PMA were higher in the intervention group. Declines in head circumference-for-age z score from birth to 36 weeks' PMA were less pronounced in the intervention group.

Conclusions: In infants born extremely preterm, human milk diets fortified soon after birth do not increase FFM accretion at 36 weeks' PMA, but they may increase length gain velocity and reduce declines in head circumference-for-age z scores from birth to 36 weeks' PMA.

Background

Human milk–based human milk fortifier (HMB-HMF) makes it possible to provide an exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) to very low birth weight (VLBW) infants in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Before the introduction of HMB-HMF in 2006, NICUs relied on bovine milk–based human milk fortifiers (BMB-HMFs) when mother's own milk (MOM) or pasteurized donor human milk (PDHM) could not provide adequate nutrition. Despite evidence supporting the clinical benefits of an EHMD (such as reducing the frequency of morbidities), barriers prevent its widespread adoption, including limited health economics and outcomes data, cost concerns, and lack of standardized feeding guidelines.

Methods

Nine experts from seven institutions gathered for a virtual roundtable discussion in October 2020 to discuss the benefits and challenges to implementing an EHMD program in the NICU environment. Each center provided a review of the process of starting their program and also presented data on various neonatal and financial metrics associated with the program. Data gathered were either from their own Vermont Oxford Network outcomes or an institutional clinical database. As each center utilizes their EHMD program in slightly different populations and over different time periods, data presented was center-specific. After all presentations, the experts discussed issues within the field of neonatology that need to be addressed with regards to the utilization of an EHMD in the NICU population.

Results

Implementation of an EHMD program faces many barriers, no matter the NICU size, patient population or geographic location. Successful implementation requires a team approach (including finance and IT support) with a NICU champion. Having pre-specified target populations as well as data tracking is also helpful. Real-world experiences of NICUs with established EHMD programs show reductions in comorbidities, regardless of the institution’s size or level of care. EHMD programs also proved to be cost effective. For the NICUs that had necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) data available, EHMD programs resulted in either a decrease or change in total (medical + surgical) NEC rate and reductions in surgical NEC. Institutions that provided cost and complications data all reported a substantial cost avoidance after EHMD implementation, ranging between $515,113 and $3,369,515 annually per institution.

Conclusions

The data provided support the initiation of EHMD programs in NICUs for very preterm infants, but there are still methodologic issues to be addressed so that guidelines can be created and all NICUs, regardless of size, can provide standardized care that benefits VLBW infants.

Background: Human milk (HM) fortification has been recommended for the nutritional optimization of very low–birthweight infants. This study analyzed the bioactive components of HM and evaluated fortification choices that could accentuate or attenuate the concentration of such components, with special reference to human milk-derived fortifier (HMDF) offered to extremely premature infants as an exclusive human milk diet.

Materials and Methods: An observational feasibility study analyzed the biochemical and immunochemical characteristics of mothers’ own milk (MOM), both fresh and frozen, and pasteurized banked donor human milk (DHM), each supplemented with either HMDF or cow’s milk-derived fortifier (CMDF). Gestation-specific specimens were analyzed for macronutrients, pH, total solids, antioxidant activity (AA), a-lactalbumin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, and a- and b-caseins. Data were analyzed for variance applying general linear model and Tukey’s test for pairwise comparison.

Results: DHM exhibited significantly lower (p < 0.05) lactoferrin and a-lactalbumin concentrations than fresh and frozen MOM. HMDF reinstated lactoferrin and a-lactalbumin and exhibited higher protein, fat, and total solids (p < 0.05) in comparison to unfortified and CMDF-supplemented specimens. HMDF had the highest (p < 0.05) AA, suggesting the potential capability of HMDF to enhance oxidative scavenging.

Conclusion: DHM, compared with MOM, has reduced bioactive properties, and CMDF conferred the least additional bioactive components. Reinstatement and further enhancement of bioactivity, which has been attenuated through pasteurization of DHM, is demonstrated through HMDF supplementation. Freshly expressed MOM fortified with HMDF and given early, enterally, and exclusively (3E) appears an optimal nutritional choice for extremely premature infants.

Objective:

To determine whether weight gain velocity (g/kg/day) 30 days after the initiation of feeds after cardiac surgery and other clinical outcomes improve in infants with single ventricle physiology fed an exclusive human milk diet compared with a mixed human and bovine diet.

Study design:

In this multicenter, randomized, single blinded, controlled trial, term neonates 7 days of age or younger with single ventricle physiology and anticipated cardiac surgical palliation within 30 days of birth were enrolled at 10 US centers. Both groups received human milk if fed preoperatively. During the 30 days after feeds were started postoperatively, infants in the intervention group received human milk fortified once enteral intake reached 60 mL/kg/day with a human milk-based fortifier designed for term neonates. The control group received standard fortification with formula once enteral intake reached 100 mL/kg/day. Perioperative feeding and parenteral nutrition study algorithms were followed.

Results:

We enrolled 107 neonates (exclusive human milk = 55, control = 52). Baseline demographics and characteristics were similar between the groups. The median weight gain velocity at study completion was higher in exclusive human milk vs control group (12 g/day [IQR, 5-18 g/day] vs 8 g/day [IQR, 0.4-14 g/day], respectively; P = .03). Other growth measures were similar between groups. Necrotizing enterocolitis of all Bell stages was higher in the control group (15.4 % vs 3.6%, respectively; P = .04). The incidence of other major morbidities, surgical complications, length of hospital stay, and hospital mortality were similar between the groups.

Conclusions:

Neonates with single ventricle physiology have improved short-term growth and decreased risk of NEC when receiving an exclusive human milk diet after stage 1 surgical palliation.

Background: Donor human milk should be processed to guarantee microbiological safety prior to infant feeding, but this process can influence the structure and quantity of functional proteins.

Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of thawing, homogenization, vat-pasteurization (Vat-PT), retort sterilization (RTR) and ultra-high-temperature (UHT) processing on the structure of bioactive proteins in donor milk.

Methods: Pooled donor milk was either not treated (Raw) or treated with an additional freeze-thaw cycle with and without homogenization, Vat-PT, RTR with and without homogenization, and UHT processing with and without homogenization. Overall protein retention was assessed via sodium-dodecyl sulfate (SDS-PAGE), and the immunoreactivity of 13 bioactive proteins were assessed via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results: Freeze-thawing, freeze-thawing plus homogenization and Vat-PT preserved all the immunoglobulins (sIgA/IgA, IgG, IgM) in donor milk, whereas RTR and UHT degraded almost all immunoglobulins. UHT did not alter osteopontin immunoreactivity, but Vat-PT and retort decreased it by ~50 and 70%, respectively. Freeze-thawing with homogenization, Vat-PT and UHT reduced lactoferrin's immunoreactivity by 35, 65, and 84%, respectively. Lysozyme survived unaltered throughout all processing conditions. In contrast, elastase immunoreactivity was decreased by all methods except freeze-thawing. Freeze-thawing, freeze-thawing plus homogenization and Vat-PT did not alter polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (PIGR) immunoreactivity, but RTR, RTR plus homogenization and UHT increased detection. All heat processing methods increased α-lactalbumin immunoreactivity. Vat-PT preserved all the growth factors (vascular/endothelial growth factor, and transforming growth factors β1 and β2), and UHT treatments preserved the majority of these factors.

Conclusion: Different bioactive proteins have different sensitivity to the treatments tested. Overall, Vat-PT preserved more of the bioactive proteins compared with UHT or RTR. Therefore, human milk processors should consider the impact of processing methods on key bioactive proteins in human milk.